Literature Review
By: Jenna Grant, Diana Shekoury, Kelsey Leng, and Jordan Fierley
Introduction/ Methodology
This literature review elaborates on past research conducted and the results found on the effectiveness of afterschool programming to different developmental categories of youth. While there were many sources utilized that overlapped developmental categories discussed in this literature review, we struggled to find a large amount of sources that encapsulated all topics deeply and at once. For this reason, our method of research consisted of finding multiple sources that individually talked about academic, emotional, physical, or mental health - with certain sources intertwining between topics.
Academic Effects- Jenna Grant
A child’s environment has a profound impact on their motivation and desire to learn and grow as a student. Children who grow up in environments not conducive to learning often find themselves behind children of the same age in environments who nurture academic growth. Jensen (2009) explains that children who come from families who are living in what is considered poverty, have a significantly different grade school experience. Jensen (2009) found that income is directly correlated with students academic success. A common occurrence between poor students is being absent and tardy, which is often times due to lack of transportation or support from parents who may have a negative attitude towards the importance of schooling and getting an education in general. High school, specifically, is an important time in a young adult's life, often where the decision to dropout or graduate is determined. Children raised in lower income areas are more likely to be looking for a dependable role model, often times within the school setting. With that in mind, it is important for students who need a nurturing and encouraging environment to be able to find that. According to the findings on after school programs conducted by Education Week, after school programs have seen a dramatic increase in the number of options available to students during after school hours. Education Week stated a quote from former United States Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley, “Children’s minds don’t close down at 3p.m.” Students need structure and thought provoking situations to grow as an individual. When one considers that a typical work day is longer than a standard school day, it is easy to see the significant gap in which a young student finds themselves alone and unsupervised. Education Week also notes that the Department of Justice reports that twenty- nine percent of juvenile offenses occur during this gap. Experts believe that a solution to this issue is in fact after school programs. The main focus of after school programs in recent years has shifted from a majority of social and physical enrichment to a balance between the social and physical enrichment and academic enrichment. The education and academic success of our upcoming generation is becoming more of a concern to our nation. Notably, the federal government has begun taking measures to support and aid afterschool programs specifically in lower income areas. Education Week highlighted a report from the United States Department of Education (2003), “Funding for the 21st Century Community Learning Centers, an after-school program established by the Clinton administration, has increased dramatically over the years, from $40 millions in fiscal year 1998 to $1 billion in fiscal 2002. The grant program now supports after school programs in about 7,500 rural and inner city public schools in more than 1,400 communities.” While these statistics are encouraging in respect to the importance of afterschool programs, one may begin to ask the question, are after school programs making improvements on students’ academic success? Findings from the Harvard Family Research Project show that afterschool programs can have an impact on academic achievement. The Harvard Family Research Project found that, “Improved test scores were reported in evaluations of The After-School Corporation (TASC) programs in New York City (Reisner, White, Birmingham, & Welsh, 2001; White, Reisner, Welsh, & Russell, 2001) and in Foundations, Inc. elementary school programs (Klein & Bolus, 2002). A more recent longitudinal study showed significant gains in math test scores for elementary and middle-school students who participated in high-quality afterschool programs (Vandell, Reisner, & Pierce, 2007), and a meta-analysis of 35 studies of at-risk youth found that out-of-school time programs had a positive effect on reading and math achievement (Lauer, Akiba, Wilkerson, Apthorp, Snow, & Martin-Glenn, 2006).” By having after school programs in place that allow students to grow in an environment that supports positive learning and academic achievement, students can improve their academic performance.
Social and Emotional Effects- Diana Shekoury
Research shows that there is a positive correlation between favorable social and emotional behaviors and afterschool care. According to the American Psychology Association (2017) children living in low-income areas are more prone to social and behavioral issues including trouble making friends, aggression, and conduct disorder. The constant struggle for money stresses out parents and may lead to a harsher, more aggressive parenting style; as a result, the child exhibits low self-esteem, which furthers their social difficulties. Furthermore, children who are exposed to unsafe neighborhoods are more likely to display violent moods. (para. 6). The lack of unstructured activity in inner cities or neighborhoods with exorbitant crime prevents children from experiencing opportunities that assist in positive emotional and social growth and development (Roffman, Pagano, and Hirsch, 2001 pg. 85-86). Roffman, Pagano, and Hirsch (2001) explain that a child who is taken out of a struggling situation, and put into an attentive, stress-free environment, which is provided by most afterschool care programs, can overcome a number of these difficulties; and, being put in a safe environment keeps children of all socioeconomic backgrounds out of trouble including early sexual activity and drug abuse (pg. 86). After school care prevents bad behavior, leading to an increase in social ability, as well as reinforcing positive habits. Park and Zahn’s research (2017) showed that children who attend structured after school care programs participated less in juvenile delinquent behavior, acquired higher grades, forged better peer relationships, and saw lower teen pregnancy rates (pg. 236). The U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Department of Justice conducted a study that showed that students in afterschool programs, “…generally handled conflicts better, were more cooperative with adults and with peers, and had better social skills” (Education Week, 2004 par 4). Park and Zahn (2017) also suggest that children who are left alone to “self-care” for four or more hours a week showed less social competence and more socially unacceptable behavior than those who are cared for or put in an after school program (pg. 235). Furthermore, there is an evident increase in the emotionally health of children attending afterschool programs. According to the findings of The Harvard Family Research Project (2008) Afterschool care programs, namely ones focused on social improvement, increase a child’s self-esteem resulting in a happier overall outlook on life (para. 5). The Harvard Family Research Project (2008) also explains that well structured after school programs are staffed with individuals that enjoy spending time with children and are readily available to their cater to their needs (para. 10). Children who do not frequently receive this attention from the adults around them are given an opportunity to channel any emotional distress without fear of negative repercussions. As a result, the attention given will reduce depression that is prominent in at-risk youth from low-income homes or neighborhoods (American Psychology Association, 2017 para. 6). After school care is a positive influence in a child’s social and emotional health of all socioeconomic backgrounds, but is almost deemed a necessity for at-risk youth due to multiple negative influences surrounding them.
Physical Effects - Jordan Fierley
Health: After-school programs have the power and capability to impact the physical wellness of a community's youth in a positive way. Sabina Gessell states in the Journal of Obesity that “Childhood obesity remains one of the most serious threats to the public's health, with 1 in 3 children and adolescents overweight or obese” (pg 1). In the Journal of Obesity, a group of researchers conducted a study on the effectiveness of after school programs in community centers that offered physical activity compared to standard school based programs. Before the study was conducted each child’s body mass index, body fat percentage, and physical fitness (tested by running a timed ½ mile) was measured in order to compare results found through the study. The study measured the physical activity of the children by placing small monitors on elastic waistbands for them to wear while they were at the after school program; Monday through Friday over a twelve week period. Results display that physical activity of children in community after school programs increased by 6 percent over twelve weeks (pg. 2-4). In contrast, children involved in standard school based programs displayed a decrease of physical activity of 6.8 percent. The literature shows the conducted study supports that increased physical activity in programs contributes to healthier living among youth (Gessell 2013, pg. 4-5). By supplying healthy snacks and meals, educating youth on proper nutrition, providing healthy and entertaining physical activities, organizations insure that kids receive physical care and attention they may not have the capacity or fortune to receive at home. The Yale Study of Children’s After School Time found reductions in obesity in those who participated in after school programs were more probable than compared to those who did not participate (After-school Programs Make a Difference: Findings From the Harvard Family Research Project 2008, pg. 5).
Safety: The duration of school covers a large piece of time that parents must allocate for child care. The typical adult work day lasts at least a few hours more than the school day. The way a child is cared for over the few afternoon hours following school is crucial to their wellness and being. However, strides are being made to improve opportunities for affordable childcare whether through a nonprofit or government issued subsidies. In 2007, The Child Care and Development Fund financed $5 billion dollars in order for lower income families to be administered state subsidies in return for child care services of children age 13 and under (United States Child Care Bureau, 2007 pg.4). According to Anita Garey in Journal of Family Issues, “The widespread support for afterschool programs is linked to the need for care of school-age children whose parents are not at home during the afternoon.” Many children are left unattended in these afternoon hours during the school week and therefore fall into the category known as “self care”. Self care can mean a child is left alone, with siblings, in a public place, or with peers; all of which involve a lack of adult supervision (Roffman 2013, pg. 1-2). The outcomes of self care can be harmful and detrimental to youth, especially youth in dangerous or high-risk neighborhoods (Vandell 1999 pg. 76). According to the National Center for Juvenile Justice, violent criminal activity in juveniles is most likely to occur directly after school between the hours of three and six pm. Parental or adult absence in these hours can increase the likelihood of criminal behavior, use of drugs, use of alcohol, self harm, accidents, and boredom. Self care not only affects physical safety, but also social and academic development. Park and Zahn state in Children and Youth Services Review 73 (2017), that youth that care for themselves more than four hours per week exhibit reduced social competence levels and less academic achievement when compared to children who spend fewer than four hours in self care (pg. 231-233). By providing avenues that enhance their development through experience and activities, after-school programs have enormous potential to limit negative effects and be a protective force for children in risky environments (Posner, Vandell, 2017 pg. 454). The Harvard Family Research Project concludes that after school programs are successful in providing a safe place for youth to grow and effectively prevent violent or unsafe activities. The thorough, reliable research developed by Harvard on differing after school programs supports that the overall participation in afterschool programs removes youth from the unsupervised scenarios- potentially saving youth from harm and preventing poor behavior from occurring (pg. 5).
Mental Effects- Kelsey Leng
According to research found in the Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21% of children reside in poverty-like areas. The children living in these high-risk areas are more likely to be approached by older members of the community that make improper role models by promoting gang violence, drugs, and involvement in criminal activity. “My success raises up my whole group” was revealed through a study that placed high-poverty children in low-poverty areas, and the successes of the experiment was shown through the engagement of the high-risk children among each other and were feeding off of the other children’s positive reinforcements (Murry, Berkel, Gaylord-Harden, Copeland-Linder, & Nation, 2011 pg. 1-2). Jennifer Roffman suggests in her manuscript that providing a safe yet affordable atmosphere for the at-risk youth helps in the growth and development of their psychosocial behaviors. However, as children become more mature in age, they are less likely to be drawn to the lure of afterschool programs with worries of part-time jobs, family responsibilities, and the streets (para. 2). Also in Youth Functioning and Experiences in Inner-City After-School Programs Among Age, Gender, and Race Groups (2001), the study suggests, the decline of self-esteem and behavioral problems can be avoided when children have access to a supportive group of influencers with a structured schedule. Positive role models help to improve the mental health of boys and girls by giving them support in atmospheres where they find more comfort and attentiveness than in their home life, such as after school programs. Structure in rules and activities allows for less time for unwanted behaviors that persist in the high-poverty demographics (para. 7). The study focused on the original after school program, the Boys and Girls Club of America (BGCA), which has helped 2,800,000 youth and 71% of those helped reside in low-income urban areas. The BGCA is an example of a program that successfully utilizes positive reinforcement in a safe environment creates a more sustainable environment for youth of high-risk urban environments, improving the mentality that often is paired with this demographic (Roffman, 2001 para. 9). According to the journal article titled: Afterschool Programs Make a Difference: Findings From the Harvard Family Research Project (2008), high quality staff and a successful programming is the key to the progress of positive results in the behavior of children (para. 8). Programs that focus on improving social and emotional assets are more likely to improve kids’ self-esteem and confidence (After-school Programs Make a Difference: Findings From the Harvard Family Research Project 2008, para. 5). After school care creates a more stable environment through parent-like role models that assist in the growth of a more positive mentality.
Conclusion
The given literature assessed in this review agrees with the general statement that attending after school programs is more beneficial to youth than not attending any program. Specifically, the literature stresses the importance of afterschool programs in aiding academic, social, emotional, physical, and mental development in youth.